Unveiling a Complex Landscape: Disproportionate Use of Tasers Raises Questions Surrounding Policing Practices in Certain Communities

The independent report, published today, suggests that a complex interplay of factors increases the likelihood of Taser being deployed against people from Black and other ethnic minority communities.

The research project was initiated by the National Police Chiefs’ Council and commissioned by the College of Policing, after their Officer and Staff Safety Review (OSSR) in 2019 found there was growing evidence to suggest that Tasers were being used disproportionately in society.

The researchers studied data from 15 forces from across England and Wales and carried out more than 150 interviews with serving police officers, police scrutiny groups and members of the public. They also reviewed body worn camera footage, observed Taser training, and analysed routine police data to generate an evidence-based understanding of the potential drivers of ethnic and racial disproportionality in police use of Taser, and to inform future interventions aimed at addressing disparities.

Key findings from the research suggest:

• There is a statistical relationship between ethnicity and increased use of Taser relative to other uses of force in some areas. This is mediated by other factors such as mental ill health, but police routine data collection needs to improve to properly understand these patterns;
• The disproportionate use of Taser across different communities and populations stems from complex interactions between multiple factors, structures, and processes, both within and external to policing;
• Policing takes place within a society fractured by inequality and structural racism in that Black and other ethnic minority populations are more likely than White people to live in areas of deprivation;
• A combination of institutional priorities, policies, practices, and demands mean that policing is concentrated into areas of deprivation, which in turn disproportionately impacts on people from Black and ethnic minority backgrounds relative to the White population;
• Given that police are more active in deprived neighbourhoods, this in turn makes Taser use in those areas more likely;
• Taser has become institutionalised as an organisational level response to perceived threat and risk, which increases its use in situations that previously have been resolved in other ways, such as through dialogue;
• Police officers count Taser among the least dangerous use of force options available to them, and risks associated with its use are under emphasised during training. Insufficient time is dedicated to discussions of ethnic disproportionality and de-escalation during Taser training, which risks creating a further push towards the use of the weapon;
• In contrast, affected communities experience Taser as a dehumanising and potentially lethal weapon. They also emphasised the psychological harms and racialised traumas generated through use of the weapon;
• Public scrutiny mechanisms designed to hold police officers to account lack adequate support.

Professor Ben Bradford, Director of the Centre for Global City Policing at UCL Security and Crime Science, said: “This research presents a complex and nuanced picture. On the one hand, ethnic disproportionality in Taser use at the population level is the product of multiple, intersecting, causes. Some of these are far beyond the control of police. On the other hand, individual uses of Taser are clearly the responsibility of police, and these instances drive the disproportionality.

“A central issue as this research agenda moves forward will be exploring whether and how police can change policy and practice to alleviate ethnic disproportionality in Taser use. If this is not possible, then there must be fundamental questions about continued use of the weapon, at least in its current form.”

The researchers say their findings highlight the need to urgently review multiple areas of Taser policy practice, training, and deployment, and point to broader issues around understandings of discrimination and racism, policing priorities and engagement with people experiencing mental health issues.

Professor Clifford Stott, Professor of Social Psychology at Keele University, said: “Our research highlights how complex the situation is and that the drivers of ethnic disproportionality in police use of Taser are not merely about individual officer decisions, but linked to the inequality and the structural racism of British society.

“Hopefully our research will open up a broader debate about the way in which the solutions lie not just within policing, but also in addressing some of the fundamental realities and problems of the society we all live in.”

Professor Abi Dymond, Associate Professor in Criminology at the University of Exeter, said: “This research highlights the urgent need to review multiple areas of Taser policy and practice, including guidance, the content and length of the training, deployment practices, accountability mechanisms and the institutionalisation of Taser.

“However, it is important this is not an insular or tokenistic process; as participants noted, this research should lead to real change and affected people and communities must be meaningfully involved in these discussions.”

 

Environmental Conundrum: Single-Use E-Cigarette Batteries Contribute to Vast Amounts of Waste, Posing a Growing Concern

 

The study, published in Joule, highlights a growing environmental threat from these increasingly popular vape pens, which are not designed to be recharged.

Disposable e-cigarettes have skyrocketed in popularity in the UK since 2021, with a survey finding an 18-fold increase recorded between January 2021 and April 2022. Within 15 months, their popularity among 18-year-old vapers rose from 0.4% to 54.8%.

This has led to new waste problems, with about 1.3 million of the devices thrown away in the nation each week. As a result, about 10,000 kilograms of lithium from e-cigarette batteries wind up in UK landfills each year, threatening nearby waterways with toxic nickel, cobalt, and organic solvents.

The research team had a hunch that the batteries used in disposable e-cigarettes were rechargeable, but were not aware of any previous studies that had assessed how long the lithium-ion batteries in these products are capable of lasting.

Hamish Reid, first author of the study from UCL Chemical Engineering, said: “Popularity in single-use vapes has exploded in recent years. Despite being sold as disposable, our research has shown that the lithium-ion batteries stored within them are capable of being charged and discharged over 450 times. This work highlights the huge waste of limited resources caused by disposable vapes.”

To test their hunch, researchers at UCL and the University of Oxford harvested batteries from disposable e-cigarettes under controlled conditions, then assessed them using the same tools and techniques used to study batteries in electric vehicles and other devices.

They examined the batteries under microscopes and used X-ray tomography to map their internal structure and understand the constituent materials. By repeatedly charging and discharging the batteries, they determined how well the batteries maintained their electrochemical performance over time, finding that they could be recharged many hundreds of times in some cases.

Professor Paul Shearing, senior author of the paper from UCL Chemical Engineering and the University of Oxford, said: “The surprise for us were the results that pointed toward just how long these batteries could potentially cycle. If you use a low charge and discharge rate, you can see that for over 700 cycles, you still have more than 90% capacity retention. That’s a pretty good battery, actually. And these are just being discarded. They’re being chucked on the side of the road.

“As a bare minimum, the public needs to be aware of the types of batteries going into these devices and the need to properly dispose of them. Manufacturers should provide the ecosystem for reuse and recycling of e-cigarette batteries, and also should be moving towards rechargeable devices as the default.”

Professor Shearing and his team are also researching new, more selective ways to recycle batteries that allow individual components to be recovered without cross-contamination, as well as more sustainable battery chemistries, including post-lithium ion, lithium sulfur, and sodium ion batteries.

In order to address challenges across the entire battery supply chain, scientists should consider batteries’ life cycles when thinking about any of their applications.

“That permeates all the work we do, really, whether it’s a vape battery or whether it’s a battery going into an electric helicopter,” said Professor Shearing. “It’s the same kind of thought process where we need to fully understand the life cycle of a battery device.”

This work was supported by the EPSRC CASE Award; the Faraday Institution; the Department of Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT); and the Royal Academy of Engineering for the Chair in Emerging Technologies; and the National Physical Laboratory (NPL).